The Social Contract (1762) opens with one of philosophy’s most famous sentences: “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.” Rousseau’s answer to this paradox revolutionized political thought and influenced the French Revolution.
The Problem of Political Authority
Why should anyone obey the state? Rousseau rejects traditional answers based on divine right, natural hierarchy, or mere force. Legitimate authority must rest on agreement among free individuals.
“Since no man has a natural authority over his fellow, and force creates no right, we must conclude that conventions form the basis of all legitimate authority among men.”
The General Will
Citizens form a political community by agreeing to be governed by the “general will”—the common good of the community as a whole. This differs from the “will of all,” which is merely the sum of private interests.
The general will:
- Aims at the common good
- Applies equally to all citizens
- Cannot be represented by officials
- Is always right when properly understood
Popular Sovereignty
Sovereignty belongs to the people collectively, not to kings or parliaments. Laws are legitimate only when they express the general will. Citizens are simultaneously subjects who obey the law and sovereigns who make it.
Tensions and Influence
Rousseau’s ideas contain tensions: How do we know the general will? Can we force people to be free? These questions have sparked endless debate.
Yet the core ideas—popular sovereignty, consent of the governed, the common good—became foundational to modern democracy and continue to shape political thought.