Jean-Paul Sartre’s Being and Nothingness (1943) is the most systematic statement of existentialist philosophy. Dense and challenging, it develops a comprehensive account of human existence, freedom, and the inescapable responsibility that comes with consciousness.
Two Modes of Being
Sartre distinguishes two fundamental types of being:
Being-in-itself (en-soi)
The mode of existence of things. A rock or table simply is what it is, with no gap between essence and existence. Being-in-itself is complete, solid, identical with itself. It has no potential for change from within.
Being-for-itself (pour-soi)
The mode of existence of consciousness. Human beings are not fixed essences; we are constantly making ourselves through choices. Consciousness is always consciousness of something—it is characterized by intentionality and negation.
The for-itself is defined by lack. We are always aware of what we are not, what we could be, what we desire. This “nothingness” at the heart of consciousness is the source of human freedom.
“Man is condemned to be free.”
Existence Precedes Essence
This famous formula captures Sartre’s central claim. Unlike manufactured objects designed for a purpose (a knife’s essence—cutting—precedes its existence), humans exist first and create their essence through their choices.
There is no human nature that determines what we should be. There is no God who designed us for a purpose. We are “thrown” into existence and must create our own meaning through the choices we make.
This sounds liberating—and it is—but it also produces anguish. We cannot escape responsibility by appealing to nature, God, or circumstance.
Bad Faith (Mauvaise Foi)
Much of the book analyzes “bad faith”—our attempts to flee from the anxiety of freedom by pretending we have no choice. Bad faith is self-deception about our fundamental freedom.
Examples of Bad Faith
The waiter: A waiter who plays at being a waiter too perfectly—with exaggerated gestures and mechanical movements—is trying to be a waiter as a thing is a thing, denying his freedom to be otherwise.
The woman on a date: A woman ignores the obvious romantic intentions behind a man’s words, treating his compliments as neutral observations, thereby avoiding the choice she must make.
The coward: Someone who says “I am a coward” as if stating a fixed fact, rather than recognizing cowardice as a pattern of choices they could change.
The Structure of Bad Faith
Bad faith is possible because consciousness is not a thing. We can never simply be what we are. Even when I say “I am a teacher,” there is a gap between the statement and the reality—I am always more than any role or identity.
The Look (Le Regard)
Sartre’s analysis of “the Look” describes how encountering another consciousness threatens our freedom. When another person looks at me, something fundamental changes.
Being-for-others
Under the gaze of another, I become an object, fixed in their perception. I suddenly see myself from outside—as the Other sees me. My possibilities seem to solidify into a thing.
This experience is shame. Not shame about something specific, but the fundamental experience of being-seen, of being made into an object by another consciousness.
Conflict and Recognition
Human relationships thus involve constant struggle. Each consciousness seeks to maintain its freedom while the Other’s look threatens to objectify it. Love, desire, sadism, masochism—all are strategies for dealing with this fundamental conflict.
“Hell is other people.”
This famous line (from Sartre’s play No Exit) doesn’t mean others are bad, but that our identity is partly constituted by how others see us—and we cannot fully control that.
Radical Freedom
Despite the anguish it produces, Sartre insists on radical freedom:
Key Aspects of Sartrean Freedom
- We are always responsible for our choices: No external authority can determine our values
- Even refusing to choose is a choice: Passivity is itself an action
- Our situation constrains but doesn’t determine: A prisoner is still free in how they respond to imprisonment
- We choose not just for ourselves but for all humanity: Each choice is an image of what we think humans should be
Freedom and Anguish
Freedom produces anguish because:
- There are no guarantees our choices are right
- We cannot blame others for what we become
- The weight of responsibility is inescapable
- Even our values are chosen, not given
This anguish is not a feeling to be overcome but a permanent feature of authentic existence.
Authenticity vs. Inauthenticity
Authentic Existence
Authentic existence means:
- Acknowledging our radical freedom
- Taking responsibility for our choices
- Refusing the comfort of bad faith
- Creating values rather than receiving them
- Facing anguish without evasion
Inauthentic Existence
Inauthentic existence involves:
- Bad faith and self-deception
- Pretending we have no choice
- Following rules without owning them
- Fleeing from anguish into roles and routines
- Blaming circumstances for what we are
Practical Implications
What does Sartrean existentialism mean for everyday life?
For Self-Understanding
- You are not your past—you can always change
- Your identity is not fixed—it is constantly created
- Feelings don’t justify actions—you choose how to respond
- “I can’t help it” is usually bad faith
For Relationships
- Others see you differently than you see yourself
- Conflict is inherent in human relationships
- Authentic love acknowledges the other’s freedom
- You cannot possess another consciousness
For Ethics
- There are no pre-given moral truths
- You must create your own values
- Every choice implies a claim about what humans should do
- Responsibility cannot be delegated
Lasting Influence
Being and Nothingness shaped not only philosophy but literature, psychology, and politics:
- Literature: Sartre’s fiction and drama embody existentialist themes
- Psychology: Existential therapy draws on Sartrean analysis
- Politics: Sartre’s later work connected existentialism to Marxism
- Popular culture: Existentialist themes pervade modern fiction and film
Reading Being and Nothingness
The book is notoriously difficult. Recommendations:
- Start with Sartre’s lecture “Existentialism Is a Humanism” for an overview
- Read the introduction carefully—it sets up the entire work
- Focus on key sections: bad faith, the Look, freedom
- Read secondary literature for clarification
- Don’t expect to understand everything on first reading
Conclusion
Being and Nothingness is challenging but rewarding. Its emphasis on freedom, responsibility, and authenticity continues to resonate with those seeking to understand what it means to exist.
The central message remains powerful: we are not things with fixed natures. We are constantly creating ourselves through our choices. This is both our burden and our dignity.